When Co-Parenting Becomes A Battlefield: The Impact of A High-Conflict Divorce on Father–Child Relationships
Abstract
Fathers are traditionally seen as the patriarchal heads of households. However, in many societies, mothers exert substantial influence over the extent of paternal involvement post-divorce. Non-resident fathers often face significant barriers, particularly maternal gatekeeping, which limits access to their children and undermines their parental role. These dynamics contribute to persistent societal narratives that depict such fathers as “deadbeats” or "irresponsible." This study challenges the prevailing notion of the “absent father” by examining the emotional, social, and legal barriers to paternal involvement following divorce. Specifically, it explores how maternal gatekeeping affects father–child relationships and child development outcomes. A semi-systematic literature review was conducted using a six-step process to identify, select, and analyse over 100 scholarly sources related to post-divorce co-parenting, maternal gatekeeping, and father involvement. PRISMA principles were used to ensure transparency in the selection process. The review indicates that paternal involvement plays a critical role in promoting children’s emotional well-being, resilience, and social adjustment. Children who experience consistent and responsive parenting from fathers tend to form secure attachments and exhibit more favorable long-term outcomes. Maternal gatekeeping, however, can disrupt this process and lead to psychological and relational harm for both the child and the non-resident father. While legal systems remain the primary site for addressing post-divorce parenting disputes, the findings highlight the urgent need for social work intervention. Social workers are uniquely positioned to mediate high-conflict co-parenting relationships, promote equitable parental involvement, and advocate for the child’s best interests.
- Maternal gatekeeping restricts non-resident fathers’ involvement
- Challenges the dominant “absent father” narrative in divorce contexts
- Paternal involvement supports child emotional and social development
- Gatekeeping disrupts attachment and harms father–child relationships
- Calls for social work interventions to promote equitable co-parenting
Full text article
References
Ali, E., Letourneau, N., & Benzies, K. (2021). Parent-child attachment: A principle-based concept analysis. SAGE Open Nursing, 7. https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608211009000
Archer-Kuhn, B. (2019). Understanding the parent experience in child custody decision-making: How social workers can help. Families in Society, 100(2), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044389419825592
Banks, C. (2024). Attachment theory: Its absence and role in deinstitutionalisation strategies. Institutionalised Children Explorations and Beyond, 11(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/23493003231211563
Bastaits, K., & Pasteels, I. (2019). Is joint physical custody in the best interests of the child? Parent-child relationships and custodial arrangements. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(11-12), 3752–3772. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519838071
Blanco, M., Ferreira, J. M. L., & Arias Astray, A. (2023). Parenting coordination, a new role for social workers. Journal of Social Work, 23(1), 143–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/14680173221101241
Bosch-Brits, E., Wessels, C., & Roux, A. (2018). Fathers' experience and perceptions of parent alienation in high-conflict divorce. Social Work, 54(1), 91–110. https://doi.org/10.15270/54-1-617
Bouchard, G., & Doucet, D. (2011). Parental divorce and couples' adjustment during the transition to parenthood: The role of parent-adult child relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 32(4), 507–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X10389304
Broesch, T., von Rueden, C., Yurkowski, K., Quinn, H., Alami, S., Davis, H. E., & Bureau, J. F. (2023). Fatherhood and child-father attachment in two small-scale societies. *Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 54*(5), 591–609. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221231176788
Buchanan, T., & LeMoyne, T. (2020). Helicopter parenting and the moderating impact of gender and single-parent family structure on self-efficacy and well-being. The Family Journal, 28(3), 262–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480720925829
Cassidy, J., Stern, J. A., Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2025). Mary Main's concept of conditional strategies: Influences on studies of child-parent and adult romantic attachments. Attachment and Human Development, 27(1), 67–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2024.2426304
Churchill, B., & Craig, L. (2022). Men's and women's changing attitudes towards fatherhood and working fathers in Australia. Current Sociology, 70(6), 943–963. https://doi.org/10.1177/00113921211012737
Coffman, E., & Swank, J. (2021). Attachment styles and the family systems of individuals affected by substance abuse. The Family Journal, 29(1), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480720934487
Cohen, O., & Finzi-Dottan, R. (2013). Defense mechanisms and negotiation as predictors of co-parenting among divorcing couples: A dyadic perspective. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30(4), 430–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407512458657
Coleman, J., Cowan, P. A., & Pape Cowan, C. (2022). Attachment security, divorce, parental estrangement, and reconciliation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 39(3), 778–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211046305
Creswell, J. W. (2016). 30 essential skills for the qualitative researcher. SAGE Publications.
East, L., Jackson, D., & O'Brien, L. (2006). Father absence and adolescent development: A review of the literature. Journal of Child Health Care, 10(4), 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367493506067869
Enderstein, A. M., & Boonzaier, F. (2015). Narratives of young South African fathers: Redefining masculinity through fatherhood. Journal of Gender Studies, 24(5), 512–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2013.856751
Feresin, M., Folla, N., Lapierre, S., & Romito, P. (2018). Family mediation in child custody cases and the concealment of domestic violence. Affilia, 33(4), 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109918766659
Forehand, R., Parent, J., Golub, A., & Reid, M. (2016). Positive parenting of young adolescents by male cohabiting partners: The roles of coparenting conflict and support. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 36(3), 420–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431614566947
Goldberg, W., & Goldberg, L. (2013). Psychotherapy with targeted parents. In A. J. L. Baker & S. R. Sauber (Eds.), Working with alienated children and families (pp. 108–128). Routledge.
Gregory, A., & Milner, S. (2011). What is "new" about fatherhood? The social construction of fatherhood in France and the UK. Men and Masculinities, 14(5), 588–606. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X11412940
Grundetjern, H., Copes, H., & Sandberg, S. (2021). Dealing with fatherhood: Paternal identities among men in the illegal drug economy. European Journal of Criminology, 18(5), 643–659. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370819874429
Gupta, K. (2023). Parental well-being: Another dimension of adult well-being. The Family Journal, 31(1), 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/10664807221090948
Hatch, B. F. (2023). Spiritualists' iniquities unmasked, and the Hatch divorce case. Books on Demand.
Hong, R. M., & Welch, A. (2013). The lived experiences of single Taiwanese mothers being resilient after divorce. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 24(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659612452007
Keating, A., Sharry, J., Murphy, M., Rooney, B., & Carr, A. (2016). An evaluation of the parents plus-parenting when separated programme. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 21(2), 240–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104515581717
Kelly, T. M. (2017). Daughters' perceptions of their relationships with their fathers after parents' divorce. The Family Journal, 25(4), 376–382. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480717735023
Kim, J., & Woo, H. (2011). The complex relationship between parental divorce and the sense of control. Journal of Family Issues, 32(8), 1050–1072. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X11404521
Lasser, J., Fite, K., & Wadende, A. P. (2011). Fatherhood in Kenyan ethnic communities: Implication for child development. School Psychology International, 32(1), 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034310396613
Levite, Z., & Cohen, O. (2012). The tango of loving hate: Couple dynamics in high-conflict divorce. Clinical Social Work Journal, 40, 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-011-0334-5
Lopez, V., & Corona, R. (2012). Troubled relationships: High-risk Latina adolescents and non-resident fathers. Journal of Family Issues, 33(6), 715–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X11434915
Madhavan, S., Richter, L., & Norris, S. (2016). Father contact following union dissolution for low-income children in urban South Africa. Journal of Family Issues, 37(5), 622–644. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X14532255
Makusha, T., Richter, L., Knight, L., Van Rooyen, H., & Bhana, D. (2013). "The good and the bad?" Childhood experiences with fathers and their influence on women's expectations and men's experiences of fathering in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice about Men as Fathers, 11(2), 138–157. https://doi.org/10.3149/fth.1102.138
Markham, M. S., Hartenstein, J. L., Mitchell, Y. T., & Aljayyousi-Khalil, G. (2017). Communication among parents who share physical custody after divorce or separation. Journal of Family Issues, 38(10), 1414–1442. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X15616848
Matjila, W., & Wilson, L. (2021). Denied contact of Sepedi-speaking fathers with their children after a relationship break-up. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 62(6), 411–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2021.1871843
Mogro-Wilson, C., & Cifuentes Jr, A. (2020). Role of fatherhood identity and machismo in Latino men with problem drinking. Families in Society, 101(4), 514–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044389420921061
Moore, E. (2016). Delaying divorce: Pitfalls of restrictive divorce requirements. Journal of Family Issues, 37(16), 2265–2293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X14566620
Muldoon, A. (2023). Love is a battlefield. Diplomatic History, 48(1), 152–154. https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhad063
Nangia, V. (2023). Crisis of parental conflict: Impact on children and families. Horyzonty Wychowania, 22(64), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.35765/hw.2023.2264.08
Nascimento, E. P., & Almeida, A. A. (2024). Parental alienation: A legal analysis of civil liability and jurisprudential position towards the alienant. *Revista Ibero-Americana de Humanidades, Ciências e Educação, 10*(6), 3170–3187. https://doi.org/10.51891/rease.v10i6.14541
O'Gara, J. L. (2024). The effect of paternal economic hardship on non-resident father involvement and co-parenting among racially/ethnically diverse fathers. Families in Society, 105(2), 282–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/10443894231177747
Opondo, P. R., Olashore, A. A., Molebatsi, K., Othieno, C. J., & Ayugi, J. O. (2020). Mental health research in Botswana: A semi-systematic scoping review. Journal of International Medical Research, 48(10). https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060520966458
Partridge, H., McAllister, L., Toohey, L., Field, R., Crowe, J., & Allcock, A. (2020). Understanding the information experiences of parents involved in negotiating post-separation parenting arrangements. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 52(1), 184–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000618787604
Pinto, T. M., Feinberg, M. E., & Figueiredo, B. (2024). Coparenting conflict moderates the association between maternal prenatal depressive symptoms and infant regulatory capacity. Infant and Child Development, 33(6), e2549. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2549
Randles, J. (2018). "Manning up" to be a good father: Hybrid fatherhood, masculinity, and US responsible fatherhood policy. Gender & Society, 32(4), 516–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243218770364
Ratele, K., Shefer, T., & Clowes, L. (2012). Talking South African fathers: A critical examination of men's constructions and experiences of fatherhood and fatherlessness. South African Journal of Psychology, 42(4), 553–563. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124631204200409
Rehel, E. M. (2014). When dad stays home too: Paternity leave, gender, and parenting. Gender & Society, 28(1), 110–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243213503900
Rosenstein, D. S. (2024). Custody conflict as a developmental trauma. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 77(1), 26–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.2023.2279404
Russell, L. T., Ferraro, A. J., Beckmeyer, J. J., Markham, M. S., Wilkins-Clark, R. E., & Zimmermann, M. L. (2021). Communication technology use in post-divorce coparenting relationships: A typology and associations with post-divorce adjustment. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(12), 3752–3776. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211043837
Sieben, A., & Gürcüo?lu, A. Y. (2020). Cultural spaces of popularized psychological knowledge: Attachment parenting in Turkey. Culture & Psychology, 26(3), 335–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354067X19861055
Stroebe, M. (2021). The study of security and separation: An unexpected forerunner of attachment theory? *OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 84*(1), 146–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222819880706
Wade, C. M., Matthews, J., Forbes, F., Vertkas, L., Burn, M., & Cann, W. G. (2023). Focus on fathers: Exploring the parenting experiences of fathers using a large population-level sample. Child and Youth Care Forum, 52(4), 801–828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-022-09709-6
Walper, S., Amberg, S., Thönnissen, C., & Christ, S. L. (2020). The role of gatekeeping in non-resident fathers' contact with their children: Mothers' and fathers' views. In L. Bernardi & D. Mortelmans (Eds.), Parental life courses after separation and divorce in Europe (pp. 169–191). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44575-1_9
Willemsen, H. (2023). Parental alienation: A case of perversion of motherhood. The International Journal of Forensic Psychotherapy, 5(2), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.33212/ijfp.v5n2.2023.135
Zhang, X., Li, L., Bai, L., & Chen, Y. (2021). Father-child relations mediate the relations between paternal expressiveness and adolescent behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30, 1016–1027. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01901-x
Zou, S., Wu, X., & Li, X. (2020). Coparenting behaviour, parent-adolescent attachment, and peer attachment: An examination of gender differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49, 178–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01068-1
Authors
Copyright (c) 2026 Nathaniel Phuti Kgadima, Andrew Spaumer
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright / Open Access Policy
This journal provides immediate and free open access to all its content and is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This means readers are permitted to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author, as long as proper attribution is given. This policy is consistent with the Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) definition of open access.
Article Details
How to Cite
Similar Articles
- Calphurnia Mmathato Rammutla, Black African Families’ Perceptions of A Girl Child Raised By A Single Father: Exploratory Study , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 7 No. 1 (2025)
- Muhammad Naveed, Under Pressure to Perform: How Social Cues in Academia Shape Perfectionism Among Early-Career Scholars , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 7 No. 2 (2025)
- Calphurnia Mmathato Rammutla, Modjadji Linda Shirindi, The Application of Garden Therapy In Social Work Practice for Individuals with Substance Use Disorders In South Africa , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 8 No. 1 (2026): Continuous
- Kemi Funlayo Akeju, Financial Inclusion, Household Decision-making and Child Health Outcome in Nigeria , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 6 No. 2 (2024)
- Maria Afreen, Construction of an Industry Cycle Indicator for Profitability Prediction Analysis of Aggregate Firms in Bangladesh , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 2 No. 4 (2020)
- Calphurnia Mmathato Rammutla, The Hidden Costs of Success: The Impact of Professional Careers on Parenting and Child Well-Being in Professional Families , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 7 No. 2 (2025)
- Nour Eddine Aguenane, Human Capabilities and Instrumental Freedoms Relationship: An Empirical Investigation , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 2 No. 3 (2020)
- Calphurnia Mmathato Rammutla, Misunderstanding Suffering: Witchcraft Misconceptions, Myths, And Hidden Reality of Substance Abuse In Black African Communities , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 8 No. 1 (2026): Continuous
- Mmathato Calphurnia Rammutla, Challenges of ICT Integration in Social Work Practicums in African Higher Education: A Systematic Review , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 6 No. 1 (2024)
- Joseph Malechwanzi, From Profit To Purpose: How Corporate Social Responsibility Transforms Rural Communities In Kenya , Innovation Journal of Social Sciences and Economic Review: Vol. 7 No. 2 (2025)
You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.